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The Thirteen Colonies, also known as the Thirteen British Colonies^[2] or the Thirteen American Colonies,^[3] were a group of colonies of Great Britain on the Atlantic coast of America founded in the 17th and 18th centuries which declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States of America. The Thirteen Colonies had very similar political, constitutional, and legal systems and were dominated by Protestant English-speakers. They were part of Britain's possessions in the New World, which also included colonies in Canada, Florida, and the Caribbean.

Between 1625 and 1775, the colonial population grew from about 2,000 to 2.4 million, displacing American Indians. This population included people subject to a system of slavery which was legal in all of the colonies prior to the American Revolutionary War.^[4] In the 18th century, the British government operated its colonies under a policy of mercantilism, in which the central government administered its possessions for the economic benefit of the mother country.

The Thirteen Colonies had a high degree of self-governance and active local elections, and they resisted London's demands for more control. The French and Indian War (1754–63) against France and its Indian allies led to growing tensions between Britain and the Thirteen Colonies. During the 1750s, the colonies began collaborating with one another instead of dealing directly with Britain. These inter-colonial activities cultivated a sense of shared American identity and led to calls for protection of the colonists' 'Rights as Englishmen', especially the principle of 'no taxation without representation'. Grievances with the British government led to the American Revolution, in which the colonies collaborated in forming the Continental Congress. The colonists fought the American Revolutionary War (1775–83) with the aid of the Kingdom of France and, to a smaller degree, the Dutch Republic and the Kingdom of Spain.^[5]

• 1Colonies
• 217th century
• 318th century
• 5Population
• 6Religion
• 7Government
• 11References
• 12Further reading

Colonies[edit]

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In 1606, King James I of England granted charters to both the Plymouth Company and the London Company for the purpose of establishing permanent settlements in America. The London Company established the Colony and Dominion of Virginia in 1607, the first permanently settled English colony on the continent. The Plymouth Company founded the Popham Colony on the Kennebec River, but it was short-lived. The Plymouth Council for New England sponsored several colonization projects, culminating with Plymouth Colony in 1620 which was settled by English Puritan separatists, known today as the Pilgrims.^[6] The Dutch, Swedish, and French also established successful American colonies at roughly the same time as the English, but they eventually came under the English crown. The Thirteen Colonies were complete with the establishment of the Province of Georgia in 1732, although the term 'Thirteen Colonies' became current only in the context of the American Revolution.^[7]

In London beginning in 1660, all colonies were governed through a state department known as the Southern Department, and a committee of the Privy Council called the Board of Trade and Plantations. In 1768, a specific state department was created for America, but it was disbanded in 1782 when the Home Office took responsibility.^[8]

New England colonies[edit]

• Province of New Hampshire, established in the 1620s, chartered as crown colony in 1679
• Province of Massachusetts Bay, established in the 1620s, a crown colony 1692
• Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, established 1636, chartered as crown colony in 1663
• Connecticut Colony, established 1636, chartered as crown colony in 1662

Middle colonies[edit]

• Province of New York, proprietary colony 1664–1685, crown colony from 1686
• Province of New Jersey, proprietary colony from 1664, crown colony from 1702
• Province of Pennsylvania, a proprietary colony established 1681
• Delaware Colony (before 1776, the Lower Counties on Delaware), a proprietary colony established 1664

Southern colonies[edit]

• Province of Maryland, a proprietary colony established 1632
• Colony and Dominion of Virginia, proprietary colony established 1607, a crown colony from 1624
• Province of Carolina, a proprietary colony established 1663
  • Divided into the Province of North-Carolina and Province of South Carolina in 1712, each became a crown colony in 1729
• Province of Georgia, proprietary colony established 1732, crown colony from 1752.

17th century[edit]

Southern colonies[edit]

The first successful English colony was Jamestown, established May 14, 1607 near Chesapeake Bay. The business venture was financed and coordinated by the London Virginia Company, a joint stock company looking for gold. Its first years were extremely difficult, with very high death rates from disease and starvation, wars with local Indians, and little gold. The colony survived and flourished by turning to tobacco as a cash crop.^[9][10]

In 1632, King Charles I granted the charter for Province of Maryland to Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore. Calvert's father had been a prominent Catholic official who encouraged Catholic immigration to the English colonies. The charter offered no guidelines on religion.^[11]

The Province of Carolina was the second attempted English settlement south of Virginia, the first being the failed attempt at Roanoke. It was a private venture, financed by a group of English Lords Proprietors who obtained a Royal Charter to the Carolinas in 1663, hoping that a new colony in the south would become profitable like Jamestown. Carolina was not settled until 1670, and even then the first attempt failed because there was no incentive for emigration to that area. Eventually, however, the Lords combined their remaining capital and financed a settlement mission to the area led by Sir John Colleton. The expedition located fertile and defensible ground at what became Charleston, originally Charles Town for Charles II of England.^[12]

New England[edit]

The Pilgrims were a small group of Puritan separatists who felt that they needed to distance themselves physically from the Church of England, which they perceived as corrupted. They initially moved to the Netherlands, but eventually sailed to America in 1620 on the Mayflower. Upon their arrival, they drew up the Mayflower Compact, by which they bound themselves together as a united community, thus establishing the small Plymouth Colony. William Bradford was their main leader. After its founding, other settlers traveled from England to join the colony.^[13]

More Puritans immigrated in 1629 and established the Massachusetts Bay Colony with 400 settlers. They sought to reform the Church of England by creating a new, ideologically pure church in the New World. By 1640, 20,000 had arrived; many died soon after arrival, but the others found a healthy climate and an ample food supply. The Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies together spawned other Puritan colonies in New England, including the New Haven, Saybrook, and Connecticut colonies. During the 17th century, the New Haven and Saybrook colonies were absorbed by Connecticut.^[14]

Roger Williams established Providence Plantations in 1636 on land provided by Narragansett sachem Canonicus. Williams was a Puritan who preached religious tolerance, separation of Church and State, and a complete break with the Church of England. He was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony over theological disagreements; he founded the settlement based on an egalitarian constitution, providing for majority rule 'in civil things' and 'liberty of conscience' in religious matters.^[9][15] In 1637, a second group including Anne Hutchinson established a second settlement on Aquidneck Island, also known as Rhode Island.

Other colonists settled to the north, mingling with adventurers and profit-oriented settlers to establish more religiously diverse colonies in New Hampshire and Maine. Massachusetts absorbed these small settlements when it made significant land claims in the 1640s and 1650s, but New Hampshire was eventually given a separate charter in 1679. Maine remained a part of Massachusetts until achieving statehood in 1820.

In 1685, King James II of England closed the legislatures and consolidated the New England colonies into the Dominion of New England, putting the region under control of Governor Edmund Andros. In 1688, the colonies of New York, West Jersey, and East Jersey were added to the dominion. Andros was overthrown and the dominion was closed in 1689, after the Glorious Revolution deposed King James II; the former colonies were re-established.^[16] According to Guy Miller, the Rebellion of 1689 was the 'climax of the 60 year-old struggle between the government in England and the Puritans of Massachusetts over the question of who was to rule the Bay colony.'^[17]

Middle colonies[edit]

Beginning in 1609, Dutch traders explored and established fur trading posts on the Hudson River, Delaware River, and Connecticut River, seeking to protect their interests in the fur trade. The Dutch West India Company established permanent settlements on the Hudson River, creating the Dutch colony of New Netherland. In 1626, Peter Minuit purchased the island of Manhattan from the Lenape Indians and established the outpost of New Amsterdam.^[18] Relatively few Dutch settled in New Netherland, but the colony came to dominate the regional fur trade.^[19] It also served as the base for extensive trade with the English colonies, and many products from New England and Virginia were carried to Europe on Dutch ships.^[20] The Dutch also engaged in the burgeoning Atlantic slave trade, supplying enslaved Africans to the English colonies in North America and Barbados.^[21] The West India Company desired to grow New Netherland as it became commercially successful, yet the colony failed to attract the same level of settlement as the English colonies did. Many of those who did immigrate to the colony were English, German, Walloon, or Sephardim.^[22]

In 1638, Sweden established the colony of New Sweden in the Delaware Valley. The operation was led by former members of the Dutch West India Company, including Peter Minuit.^[23] New Sweden established extensive trading contacts with English colonies to the south, and shipped much of the tobacco produced in Virginia.^[24] The colony was conquered by the Dutch in 1655,^[25] while Sweden was engaged in the Second Northern War.

Beginning in the 1650s, the English and Dutch engaged in a series of wars, and the English sought to conquer New Netherland.^[26]Richard Nicolls captured the lightly defended New Amsterdam in 1664, and his subordinates quickly captured the remainder of New Netherland.^[27] The 1667 Treaty of Breda ended the Second Anglo-Dutch War and confirmed English control of the region.^[28] The Dutch briefly regained control of parts of New Netherland in the Third Anglo-Dutch War, but surrendered claim to the territory in the 1674 Treaty of Westminster, ending the Dutch colonial presence in North America.^[29]

After the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the British renamed the colony 'York City' or 'New York'. Large numbers of Dutch remained in the colony, dominating the rural areas between New York City and Albany, while people from New England started moving in as well as immigrants from Germany. New York City attracted a large polyglot population, including a large black slave population.^[30] In 1674, the proprietary colonies of East Jersey and West Jersey were created from lands formerly part of New York.^[31]

Pennsylvania was founded in 1681 as a proprietary colony of Quaker William Penn. The main population elements included the Quaker population based in Philadelphia, a Scotch-Irish population on the Western frontier, and numerous German colonies in between.^[32] Philadelphia became the largest city in the colonies with its central location, excellent port, and a population of about 30,000.^[33]

18th century[edit]

In 1702, East and West Jersey were combined to form the Province of New Jersey.

The northern and southern sections of the Carolina colony operated more or less independently until 1691, when Philip Ludwell was appointed governor of the entire province. From that time until 1708, the northern and southern settlements remained under one government. However, during this period, the two halves of the province began increasingly to be known as North Carolina and South Carolina, as the descendants of the colony's proprietors fought over the direction of the colony.^[34] The colonists of Charles Town finally deposed their governor and elected their own government. This marked the start of separate governments in the Province of North-Carolina and the Province of South Carolina. In 1729, the king formally revoked Carolina's colonial charter and established both North Carolina and South Carolina as crown colonies.^[35]

In the 1730s, ParliamentarianJames Oglethorpe proposed that the area south of the Carolinas be colonized with the 'worthy poor' of England to provide an alternative to the overcrowded debtors' prisons. Oglethorpe and other English philanthropists secured a royal charter as the Trustees of the colony of Georgia on June 9, 1732.^[36] Oglethorpe and his compatriots hoped to establish a utopian colony that banned slavery and recruited only the most worthy settlers, but by 1750 the colony remained sparsely populated. The proprietors gave up their charter in 1752, at which point Georgia became a crown colony.^[37]

The colonial population of Thirteen Colonies grew immensely in the 18th century. According to historian Alan Taylor, the population of the Thirteen Colonies stood at 1.5 million in 1750, which represented four-fifths of the population of British North America.^[38] More than 90 percent of the colonists lived as farmers, though some seaports also flourished. In 1760, the cities of Philadelphia, New York, and Boston had a population in excess of 16,000, which was small by European standards.^[39] By 1770, the economic output of the Thirteen Colonies made up forty percent of the gross domestic product of the British Empire.^[40]

As the 18th century progressed, colonists began to settle far from the Atlantic coast. Pennsylvania, Virginia, Connecticut, and Maryland all laid claim to the land in the Ohio River valley. The colonies engaged in a scramble to purchase land from Indian tribes, as the British insisted that claims to land should rest on legitimate purchases.^[41] Virginia was particularly intent on western expansion, and most of the elite Virginia families invested in the Ohio Company to promote the settlement of Ohio Country.^[42]

Global trade and immigration[edit]

The British colonies in North America became part of the global British trading network, as the value tripled for exports from British North America to Britain between 1700 and 1754. The colonists were restricted in trading with other European powers, but they found profitable trade partners in the other British colonies, particularly in the Caribbean. The colonists traded foodstuffs, wood, tobacco, and various other resources for Asian tea, West Indian coffee, and West Indian sugar, among other items.^[43] American Indians far from the Atlantic coast supplied the Atlantic market with beaver fur and deerskins.^[44] British North America had an advantage in natural resources and established its own thriving shipbuilding industry, and many North American merchants engaged in the transatlantic trade.^[45]

Improved economic conditions and easing of religious persecution in Europe made it more difficult to recruit labor to the colonies, and many colonies became increasingly reliant on slave labor, particularly in the South. The population of slaves in British North America grew dramatically between 1680 and 1750, and the growth was driven by a mixture of forced immigration and the reproduction of slaves.^[46] Slaves supported vast plantation economies in the South, while slaves in the North worked in a variety of occupations.^[47] There were some slave revolts, such as the Stono Rebellion and the New York Conspiracy of 1741, but these uprisings were suppressed.^[48]

A small proportion of the English population migrated to British North America after 1700, but the colonies attracted new immigrants from other European countries. These immigrants traveled to all of the colonies, but the Middle Colonies attracted the most and continued to be more ethnically diverse than the other colonies.^[49] Numerous settlers immigrated from Ireland,^[50] both Catholic and Protestant—particularly 'New Light' UlsterPresbyterians.^[51] Protestant Germans also migrated in large numbers, particularly to Pennsylvania.^[52] In the 1740s, the Thirteen Colonies underwent the First Great Awakening.^[53]

French and Indian War[edit]

In 1738, an incident involving a Welsh mariner named Robert Jenkins sparked the War of Jenkins' Ear between Britain and Spain. Hundreds of North Americans volunteered for Admiral Edward Vernon's assault on Cartegena de Indias, a Spanish city in South America.^[54] The war against Spain merged into a broader conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession, but most colonists called it King George's War.^[55] In 1745, British and colonial forces captured the town of Louisbourg, and the war came to an end with the 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. However, many colonists were angered when Britain returned Louisbourg to France in return for Madras and other territories.^[56] In the aftermath of the war, both the British and French sought to expand into the Ohio River valley.^[57]

The French and Indian War (1754–63) was the American extension of the general European conflict known as the Seven Years' War. Previous colonial wars in North America had started in Europe and then spread to the colonies, but the French and Indian War is notable for having started in North America and spread to Europe. One of the primary causes of the war was increasing competition between Britain and France, especially in the Great Lakes and Ohio valley.^[58]

The French and Indian War took on a new significance for the British North American colonists when William Pitt the Elder decided that major military resources needed to be devoted to North America in order to win the war against France. For the first time, the continent became one of the main theaters of what could be termed a 'world war'. During the war, it became increasingly apparent to American colonists that they were under the authority of the British Empire, as British military and civilian officials took on an increased presence in their lives.

The war also increased a sense of American unity in other ways. It caused men to travel across the continent who might otherwise have never left their own colony, fighting alongside men from decidedly different backgrounds who were nonetheless still American. Throughout the course of the war, British officers trained Americans for battle, most notably George Washington, which benefited the American cause during the Revolution. Also, colonial legislatures and officials had to cooperate intensively in pursuit of the continent-wide military effort.^[58] The relations were not always positive between the British military establishment and the colonists, setting the stage for later distrust and dislike of British troops. At the 1754 Albany Congress, Pennsylvania colonist Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany Plan which would have created a unified government of the Thirteen Colonies for coordination of defense and other matters, but the plan was rejected by the leaders of most colonies.^[59]

In the Treaty of Paris (1763), France formally ceded to Britain the eastern part of its vast North American empire, having secretly given to Spain the territory of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River the previous year. Before the war, Britain held the thirteen American colonies, most of present-day Nova Scotia, and most of the Hudson Bay watershed. Following the war, Britain gained all French territory east of the Mississippi River, including Quebec, the Great Lakes, and the Ohio River valley. Britain also gained Spanish Florida, from which it formed the colonies of East and West Florida. In removing a major foreign threat to the thirteen colonies, the war also largely removed the colonists' need of colonial protection.

The British and colonists triumphed jointly over a common foe. The colonists' loyalty to the mother country was stronger than ever before. However, disunity was beginning to form. British Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder had decided to wage the war in the colonies with the use of troops from the colonies and tax funds from Britain itself. This was a successful wartime strategy but, after the war was over, each side believed that it had borne a greater burden than the other. The British elite, the most heavily taxed of any in Europe, pointed out angrily that the colonists paid little to the royal coffers. The colonists replied that their sons had fought and died in a war that served European interests more than their own. This dispute was a link in the chain of events that soon brought about the American Revolution.^[58]

Growing dissent[edit]

The British were left with large debts following the French and Indian War, so British leaders decided to increase taxation and control of the Thirteen Colonies.^[60] They imposed several new taxes, beginning with the Sugar Act of 1764. Later acts included the Currency Act of 1764, the Stamp Act of 1765, and the Townshend Acts of 1767.^[61]

The British also sought to maintain peaceful relations with those Indian tribes that had allied with the French by keeping them separated from the American frontiersmen. To this end, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 restricted settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, as this was designated an Indian Reserve.^[62] Some groups of settlers disregarded the proclamation, however, and continued to move west and establish farms.^[63] The proclamation was soon modified and was no longer a hindrance to settlement, but the fact angered the colonists that it had been promulgated without their prior consultation.^[64]

Parliament had directly levied duties and excise taxes on the colonies, bypassing the colonial legislatures, and Americans began to insist on the principle of 'no taxation without representation' with intense protests over the Stamp Act of 1765.^[65] They argued that the colonies had no representation in the British Parliament, so it was a violation of their rights as Englishmen for taxes to be imposed upon them. Parliament rejected the colonial protests and asserted its authority by passing new taxes.

Colonial discontentment grew with the passage of the 1773 Tea Act, which reduced taxes on tea sold by the East India Company in an effort to undercut competition, and Prime Minister North's ministry hoped that this would establish a precedent of colonists accepting British taxation policies. Trouble escalated over the tea tax, as Americans in each colony boycotted the tea, and those in Boston dumped the tea in the harbor during the Boston Tea Party in 1773 when the Sons of Liberty dumped thousands of pounds of tea into the water. Tensions escalated in 1774 as Parliament passed the laws known as the Intolerable Acts, which greatly restricted self-government in the colony of Massachusetts. These laws also allowed British military commanders to claim colonial homes for the quartering of soldiers, regardless whether the American civilians were willing or not to have soldiers in their homes. The laws further revoked colonial rights to hold trials in cases involving soldiers or crown officials, forcing such trials to be held in England rather than in America. Parliament also sent Thomas Gage to serve as Governor of Massachusetts and as the commander of British forces in North America.^[66]

By 1774, colonists still hoped to remain part of the British Empire, but discontentment was widespread concerning British rule throughout the Thirteen Colonies.^[67] Colonists elected delegates to the First Continental Congress which convened in Philadelphia in September 1774. In the aftermath of the Intolerable Acts, the delegates asserted that the colonies owed allegiance only to the king; they would accept royal governors as agents of the king, but they were no longer willing to recognize Parliament's right to pass legislation affecting the colonies. Most delegates opposed an attack on the British position in Boston, and the Continental Congress instead agreed to the imposition of a boycott known as the Continental Association. The boycott proved effective and the value of British imports dropped dramatically.^[68] The Thirteen Colonies became increasingly divided between Patriots opposed to British rule and Loyalists who supported it.^[69]

American Revolution[edit]

In response, the colonies formed bodies of elected representatives known as Provincial Congresses, and Colonists began to boycott imported British merchandise.^[70] Later in 1774, 12 colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. During the Second Continental Congress, the remaining colony of Georgia sent delegates, as well.

Massachusetts Governor Thomas Gage feared a confrontation with the colonists; he requested reinforcements from Britain, but the British government was not willing to pay for the expense of stationing tens of thousands of soldiers in the Thirteen Colonies. Gage was instead ordered to seize Patriot arsenals. He dispatched a force to march on the arsenal at Concord, Massachusetts, but the Patriots learned about it and blocked their advance. The Patriots repulsed the British force at the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord, then lay siege to Boston.^[71]

By spring 1775, all royal officials had been expelled, and the Continental Congress hosted a convention of delegates for the 13 colonies. It raised an army to fight the British and named George Washington its commander, made treaties, declared independence, and recommended that the colonies write constitutions and become states.^[72] The Second Continental Congress assembled in May 1775 and began to coordinate armed resistance against Britain. It established a government that recruited soldiers and printed its own money. General Washington took command of the Patriot soldiers in New England and forced the British to withdraw from Boston. In 1776, the Thirteen Colonies declared their independence from Britain. With the help of France and Spain, they defeated the British in the American Revolutionary War. In the Treaty of Paris (1783), Britain officially recognized the independence of the United States of America.

Population[edit]

The colonial population rose to a quarter of a million during the 17th century, and to nearly 2.5 million on the eve of the American revolution.Perkins (1988) notes the importance of good health for the growth of the colonies: 'Fewer deaths among the young meant that a higher proportion of the population reached reproductive age, and that fact alone helps to explain why the colonies grew so rapidly.'^[74] There were many other reasons for the population growth besides good health, such as the Great Migration.^[dubious]

By 1776, about 85% of the white population's ancestry originated in the British Isles (English, Irish, Scottish, Welsh), 9% of German origin, 4% Dutch and 2% Huguenot French and other minorities.Over 90% were farmers, with several small cities that were also seaports linking the colonial economy to the larger British Empire. These populations continued to grow at a rapid rate during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, primarily because of high birth rates and relatively low death rates. Immigration was a minor factor from 1774 to 1830.^[75] The Federal Census Bureau study of 2004 gives the following population estimates for the colonies: 1610 350; 1620 2,302; 1630 4,646; 1640 26,634; 1650 50,368; 1660 75,058; 1670 111,935; 1680 151,507; 1690 210,372; 1700 250,888; 1710 331,711; 1720 466,185; 1730 629,445; 1740 905,563; 1750 170,760; 1760 1,593,625; 1770 2,148,076; 1780 2,780,369. CT970 p. 2-13: Colonial and Pre-Federal Statistics, United States Census Bureau 2004, p. 1168.

According to the United States Historical Census Data Base (USHCDB), the ethnic populations in the British American Colonies of 1700, 1755, and 1775 were:

Slaves[edit]

Slavery was legal and practiced in all of the Thirteen Colonies.^[4] In most places, it involved house servants or farm workers. It was of economic importance in the export-oriented tobacco plantations of Virginia and Maryland and on the rice and indigo plantations of South Carolina.^[79]About 287,000 slaves were imported into the Thirteen Colonies over a period of 160 years, or 2% of the estimated 12 million taken from Africa to the Americas via the Atlantic slave trade. The great majority went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. By the mid-18th century, life expectancy was much higher in the American colonies.^[80]

The numbers grew rapidly through a very high birth rate and low mortality rate, reaching nearly four million by the 1860 census. From 1770 until 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American slaves was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and was nearly twice as rapid as that in England.

Religion[edit]

Protestantism was the predominant religious affiliation in the Thirteen Colonies, although there were also Catholics, Jews, and deists, and a large fraction had no religious connection. The Church of England was officially established in most of the South. The Puritan movement became the Congregational church, and it was the established religious affiliation in Massachusetts and Connecticut into the 18th century.^[82] In practice, this meant that tax revenues were allocated to church expenses. The Anglican parishes in the South were under the control of local vestries and had public functions such as repair of the roads and relief of the poor.^[83]

The colonies were religiously diverse, with different Protestant denominations brought by British, German, Dutch, and other immigrants. The Reformed tradition was the foundation for Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Continental Reformed denominations. French Huguenots set up their own Reformed congregations. The Dutch Reformed Church was strong among Dutch Americans in New York and New Jersey, while Lutheranism was prevalent among German immigrants. Germans also brought diverse forms of Anabaptism, especially the Mennonite variety. Reformed Baptist preacher Roger Williams founded Providence Plantations which became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Jews were clustered in a few port cities. The Baltimore family founded Maryland and brought in fellow Catholics from England.^[84] Catholics were estimated at 1.6% of the population or 40,000 in 1775. Of the 200–250,000 Irish who came to the Colonies between 1701 and 1775 less than 20,000 were Catholic, many of whom hid their faith or lapsed because of prejudice and discrimination. Between 1770–1775 3,900 Irish Catholics arrived out of almost 45,000 white immigrants (7,000 English, 15,000 Scots, 13,200 Scots-Irish, 5,200 Germans), Jon Butler, Becoming America, The Revolution before 1776, 2000, p. 35, ISBN0-674-00091-9. Most Catholics were English Recusants, Germans, Irish and blacks who lived in Maryland where half the Catholic population lived, New York and Pennsylvania. Presbyterians were chiefly immigrants from Scotland and Ulster who favored the back country and frontier districts.^[85]

Quakers were well established in Pennsylvania, where they controlled the governorship and the legislature for many years.^[86] Quakers were also numerous in Rhode Island. Baptists and Methodists were growing rapidly during the First Great Awakening of the 1740s.^[87] Many denominations sponsored missions to the local Indians.^[88]

Education[edit]

Higher education was available for young men in the North, and most students were aspiring Protestant ministers. The oldest colleges were New College (Harvard), College of New Jersey (Princeton), Collegiate School (Yale), and College of Rhode Island (Brown). Others were King's College (Columbia), the College of Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania), Queen's College (Rutgers) and Dartmouth College in New Hampshire. South of Philadelphia, there was only the College of William and Mary which trained the secular elite in Virginia, especially aspiring lawyers.

In the Southern U.S. the belief, mirroring the common belief in Europe, that the family had the responsibility of educating their children. Wealthy families either used tutors and governesses from Britain or sent children to school in England. By the 1700s university students based in the colonies began to act as tutors.^[89]

Most New England towns sponsored public schools for boys, but public schooling was rare elsewhere. Girls were educated at home or by small local private schools, and they had no access to college. Aspiring physicians and lawyers typically learned as apprentices to an established practitioner, although some young men went to medical schools in Scotland.^{[90][page needed]}

Government[edit]

The three forms of colonial government in 1776 were provincial (royal colony), proprietary, and charter. These governments were all subordinate to the British monarch with no representation in the Parliament of Great Britain. The administration of all British colonies was overseen by the Board of Trade in London beginning late in the 17th century.

The provincial colony was governed by commissions created at pleasure of the king. A governor and his council were appointed by the crown. The governor was invested with general executive powers and authorized to call a locally elected assembly. The governor's council would sit as an upper house when the assembly was in session, in addition to its role in advising the governor. Assemblies were made up of representatives elected by the freeholders and planters (landowners) of the province. The governor had the power of absolute veto and could prorogue (i.e., delay) and dissolve the assembly. The assembly's role was to make all local laws and ordinances, ensuring that they were not inconsistent with the laws of Britain. In practice, this did not always occur, since many of the provincial assemblies sought to expand their powers and limit those of the governor and crown. Laws could be examined by the British Privy Council or Board of Trade, which also held veto power of legislation. New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia were crown colonies. Massachusetts became a crown colony at the end of the 17th century.

Proprietary colonies were governed much as royal colonies, except that lord proprietors appointed the governor rather than the king. They were set up after the English Restoration of 1660 and typically enjoyed greater civil and religious liberty. Pennsylvania (which included Delaware), New Jersey, and Maryland were proprietary colonies.^[91]

Charter governments were political corporations created by letters patent, giving the grantees control of the land and the powers of legislative government. The charters provided a fundamental constitution and divided powers among legislative, executive, and judicial functions, with those powers being vested in officials. Massachusetts, Providence Plantation, Rhode Island, Warwick, and Connecticut were charter colonies. The Massachusetts charter was revoked in 1684 and was replaced by a provincial charter that was issued in 1691.^[92]Providence Plantations merged with the settlements at Rhode Island and Warwick to form the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which also became a charter colony in 1636.

British role[edit]

After 1680, the imperial government in London took an increasing interest in the affairs of the colonies, which were growing rapidly in population and wealth. In 1680, only Virginia was a royal colony; by 1720, half were under the control of royal governors. These governors were appointees closely tied to the government in London.

Historians before the 1880s emphasized American nationalism. However, scholarship after that time was heavily influenced by the 'Imperial school' led by Herbert L. Osgood, George Louis Beer, Charles McLean Andrews, and Lawrence H. Gipson. This viewpoint dominated colonial historiography into the 1940s, and they emphasized and often praised the attention that London gave to all the colonies. In this view, there was never a threat (before the 1770s) that any colony would revolt or seek independence.^[93]

Self-government[edit]

British settlers did not come to the American colonies with the intention of creating a democratic system; yet they quickly created a broad electorate without a land-owning aristocracy, along with a pattern of free elections which put a strong emphasis on voter participation. The colonies offered a much freer degree of suffrage than Britain or indeed any other country. Any property owner could vote for members of the lower house of the legislature, and they could even vote for the governor in Connecticut and Rhode Island.^[94] Voters were required to hold an 'interest' in society; as the South Carolina legislature said in 1716, 'it is necessary and reasonable, that none but such persons will have an interest in the Province should be capable to elect members of the Commons House of Assembly'.^[95] The main legal criterion for having an 'interest' was ownership of real estate property, which was uncommon in Britain, where 19 out of 20 men were controlled politically by their landlords. (Women, children, indentured servants, and slaves were subsumed under the interest of the family head.) London insisted on this requirement for the colonies, telling governors to exclude from the ballot men who were not freeholders—that is, those who did not own land. Nevertheless, land was so widely owned that 50% to 80% of the men were eligible to vote.^[96]

The colonial political culture emphasized deference, so that local notables were the men who ran and were chosen. But sometimes they competed with each other and had to appeal to the common man for votes. There were no political parties, and would-be legislators formed ad-hoc coalitions of their families, friends, and neighbors. Outside of Puritan New England, election day brought in all the men from the countryside to the county seat to make merry, politick, shake hands with the grandees, meet old friends, and hear the speeches—all the while toasting, eating, treating, tippling, and gambling. They voted by shouting their choice to the clerk, as supporters cheered or booed. Candidate George Washington spent £39 for treats for his supporters. The candidates knew that they had to 'swill the planters with bumbo' (rum). Elections were carnivals where all men were equal for one day and traditional restraints were relaxed.^[97]

The actual rate of voting ranged from 20% to 40% of all adult white males. The rates were higher in Pennsylvania and New York, where long-standing factions based on ethnic and religious groups mobilized supporters at a higher rate. New York and Rhode Island developed long-lasting two-faction systems that held together for years at the colony level, but they did not reach into local affairs. The factions were based on the personalities of a few leaders and an array of family connections, and they had little basis in policy or ideology. Elsewhere the political scene was in a constant whirl, based on personality rather than long-lived factions or serious disputes on issues.^[94]

The colonies were independent of one other long before 1774; indeed, all the colonies began as separate and unique settlements or plantations. Further, efforts had failed to form a colonial union through the Albany Congress of 1754 led by Benjamin Franklin. The thirteen all had well-established systems of self-government and elections based on the Rights of Englishmen which they were determined to protect from imperial interference.^[98]

Economic policy[edit]

The British Empire at the time operated under the mercantile system, where all trade was concentrated inside the Empire, and trade with other empires was forbidden. The goal was to enrich Britain—its merchants and its government. Whether the policy was good for the colonists was not an issue in London, but Americans became increasingly restive with mercantilist policies.^[99]

Mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. The government protected its merchants—and kept others out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The government had to fight smuggling—which became a favorite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish or Dutch.^[100] The tactic used by mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy, which not only protected the British colonies but threatened the colonies of the other empires, and sometimes seized them. Thus the British Navy captured New Amsterdam (New York) in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country.^[101]

Britain implemented mercantilism by trying to block American trade with the French, Spanish, or Dutch empires using the Navigation Acts, which Americans avoided as often as they could. The royal officials responded to smuggling with open-ended search warrants (Writs of Assistance). In 1761, Boston lawyer James Otis argued that the writs violated the constitutional rights of the colonists. He lost the case, but John Adams later wrote, 'Then and there the child Independence was born.'^[102]

However, the colonists took pains to argue that they did not oppose British regulation of their external trade; they only opposed legislation which affected them internally.

Other British colonies[edit]

1. Nova Scotia
2. Thirteen Colonies
3. Bermuda
4. British Leeward Islands and Barbados

Besides these thirteen colonies, Britain had another dozen in the New World. Those in the British West Indies, Newfoundland, the Province of Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Bermuda, and East and West Florida remained loyal to the crown throughout the war (although Spain reacquired Florida before the war was over, and later sold it to the United States). There was a certain degree of sympathy with the Patriot cause in several of the other colonies, but their geographical isolation and the dominance of British naval power precluded any effective participation.^[103] The British crown had only recently acquired those lands, and many of the issues facing the Thirteen Colonies did not apply to them, especially in the case of Quebec and Florida.^[104]

Newfoundland was exempt from the Navigation Acts and shared none of the grievances of the continental colonies. It was tightly bound to Britain and controlled by the Royal Navy and had no assembly that could voice grievances.^{[citation needed]}

Nova Scotia had a large Yankee element that had recently arrived from New England, and shared the sentiments of the Americans about demanding the rights of the British men. The royal government in Halifax reluctantly allowed the Yankees of Nova Scotia a kind of 'neutrality'. In any case, the island-like geography and the presence of the major British naval base at Halifax made the thought of armed resistance impossible.^[105]

Quebec was inhabited by French Catholic settlers who came under British control in the previous decade. The Quebec Act of 1774 gave them formal cultural autonomy within the empire, and many priests feared the intense Protestantism in New England. The American grievances over taxation had little relevance, and there was no assembly nor elections of any kind that could have mobilized any grievances. Even so, the Americans offered membership in the new nation and sent a military expedition that failed to capture Canada in 1775. Most Canadians remained neutral but some joined the American cause.^[106]

In the West Indies the elected assemblies of Jamaica, Grenada, and Barbados formally declared their sympathies for the American cause and called for mediation, but the others were quite loyal. Britain carefully avoided antagonizing the rich owners of sugar plantations (many of whom lived in London); in turn the planters' greater dependence on slavery made them recognize the need for British military protection from possible slave revolts. The possibilities for overt action were sharply limited by the overwhelming power of Royal Navy in the islands. During the war there was some opportunistic trading with American ships.^[107]

In Bermuda and the Bahamas local leaders were angry at the food shortages caused by British blockade of American ports. There was increasing sympathy for the American cause, including smuggling, and both colonies were considered 'passive allies' of the United States throughout the war. When an American naval squadron arrived in the Bahamas to seize gunpowder, the colony gave no resistance at all.^[108]

East Florida and West Florida were territories transferred from Spain to Britain after the French and Indian War by treaty. The few British colonists there needed protection from attacks by Indians and Spanish privateers. After 1775, East Florida became a major base for the British war effort in the South, especially in the invasions of Georgia and South Carolina.^[109] However, Spain seized Pensacola in West Florida in 1781, then recovered both territories in the Treaty of Paris that ended the war in 1783. Spain ultimately transferred the Florida provinces to the United States in 1819.^[110]

Historiography[edit]

The first British Empire centered on the Thirteen Colonies, which attracted large numbers of settlers from Britain. The 'Imperial School' in the 1900–1930s took a favorable view of the benefits of empire, emphasizing its successful economic integration.^[111] The Imperial School included such historians as Herbert L. Osgood, George Louis Beer, Charles M. Andrews, and Lawrence Gipson.^[112]

The shock of Britain's defeat in 1783 caused a radical revision of British policies on colonialism, thereby producing what historians call the end of the First British Empire, even though Britain still controlled Canada and some islands in the West Indies.^[113]Ashley Jackson writes:

The first British Empire was largely destroyed by the loss of the American colonies, followed by a 'swing to the east' and the foundation of a second British Empire based on commercial and territorial expansion in South Asia.^[114]

Much of the historiography concerns the reasons why the Americans rebelled in the 1770s and successfully broke away. Since the 1960s, the mainstream of historiography has emphasized the growth of American consciousness and nationalism and the colonial republican value-system, in opposition to the aristocratic viewpoint of British leaders.^[115]

Historians in recent decades have mostly used one of three approaches to analyze the American Revolution:^[116]

• The Atlantic history view places North American events in a broader context, including the French Revolution and Haitian Revolution. It tends to integrate the historiographies of the American Revolution and the British Empire.^[117][118]
• The new social history approach looks at community social structure to find issues that became magnified into colonial cleavages.
• The ideological approach centers on republicanism in the Thirteen Colonies.^[119] The ideas of republicanism dictated that the United States would have no royalty or aristocracy or national church. They did permit continuation of the British common law, which American lawyers and jurists understood, approved of, and used in their everyday practice. Historians have examined how the rising American legal profession adapted the British common law to incorporate republicanism by selective revision of legal customs and by introducing more choice for courts.^[120][121]

See also[edit]

• State cessions, post–Revolutionary War resolution of conflicting colonial land claims between the 13 former colonies

References[edit]

1. ^ ^abU.S. Bureau of the Census, A century of population growth from the first census of the United States to the twelfth, 1790–1900 (1909) p. 9.
2. ^Galloway, Joseph (1780). Cool thoughts on the consequences of American independence, &c. printed for J. Wilkie. London. p. 57. OCLC24301390. OL19213819M. Retrieved October 12, 2018 – via Internet Archive.
3. ^South Carolina. Convention (1862). Journal of the Convention of the people of South Carolina. published by order of the Convention. Columbia, S. C.: R. W. Gibbes. p. 461. OCLC1047483138. Retrieved October 12, 2018 – via Internet Archive.
4. ^ ^abJunius P. Rodriguez (2007). Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 88. ISBN978-1-85109-544-5.
5. ^Richard Middleton and Anne Lombard, Colonial America: A History to 1763 (4th ed. 2011)
6. ^Richter, pp. 152–53
7. ^The number 13 is mentioned as early as 1720 by Abel Boyer, The Political State of Great Britain vol. 19, p. 376: 'so in this Country we have Thirteen Colonies at least severally govern'd by their respective Commanders in Chief, according to their peculiar Laws and Constitutions.' This includes Carolina as a single colony and does not include Georgia, but instead counts Nova Scotia and Newfoundland as British colonies. Also see John Roebuck, An Enquiry, Whether the Guilt of the Present Civil War in America, Ought to be Imputed to Great Britain Or America, p. 21: 'though the colonies be thus absolutely subject to the parliament of England, the individuals of which the colony consist, may enjoy security, and freedom; there is not a single inhabitant, of the thirteen colonies, now in arms, but who may be conscious of the truth of this assertion'. The critical review, or annals of literature vol. 48 (1779), p. 136: 'during the last war, no part of his majesty's dominions contained a greater proportion of faithful subjects than the Thirteen Colonies.'
8. ^Foulds, Nancy Brown. 'Colonial Office'. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 7, 2018.
9. ^ ^abAlan Taylor, American Colonies,, 2001.
10. ^Ronald L. Heinemann, Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: A History of Virginia, 1607–2007, 2008.
11. ^Sparks, Jared (1846). The Library of American Biography: George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore. Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown. pp. 16–.
12. ^Robert M. Weir, Colonial South Carolina: A History (1983).
13. ^Nathaniel Philbrick, Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War Paperback (2007).
14. ^Francis J. Bremer, The Puritan Experiment: New England Society from Bradford to Edwards (1995).
15. ^Benjamin Woods Labaree, Colonial Massachusetts: a history (1979)
16. ^Michael G. Hall; Lawrence H. Leder; Michael Kammen, eds. (December 1, 2012). The Glorious Revolution in America: Documents on the Colonial Crisis of 1689. UNC Press Books. pp. 3–4, 39. ISBN978-0-8078-3866-2.
17. ^Guy Howard Miller, 'Rebellion in Zion: The Overthrow of the Dominion of New England.' Historian 30#3 (1968): 439–59. online
18. ^Richter, pp. 138–40
19. ^Richter, pp. 159–60
20. ^Richter pp. 212–13
21. ^Richter pp. 214–15
22. ^Richter pp. 215–17
23. ^Richter, p. 150
24. ^Richter p. 213
25. ^Richter, p. 262
26. ^Richter pp. 247–48
27. ^Richter, pp. 248–49
28. ^Richter, p. 249
29. ^Richter p. 261
30. ^Michael G. Kammen, Colonial New York: A History (1974).
31. ^John E. Pomfret, Colonial New Jersey: A History (1973).
32. ^Joseph E. Illick, Colonial Pennsylvania: a history (1976).
33. ^Russell F. Weigley, ed., Philadelphia: a 300 year history (1982). excerpt
34. ^Richter, pp. 319–22
35. ^Richter, pp. 323–24
36. ^Colonial charters, grants and related documents
37. ^Richter, pp. 358–59
38. ^Taylor (2016), p. 20
39. ^Taylor (2016), p. 23
40. ^Taylor (2016), p. 25
41. ^Richter, pp. 373–74
42. ^Richter, pp. 376–77
43. ^Richter, pp. 329–30
44. ^Richter, pp. 332–36
45. ^Richter, pp. 330–31
46. ^Richter, pp. 346–47
47. ^Richter, pp. 351–52
48. ^Richter, pp. 353–54
49. ^Taylor (2016), pp. 18–19
50. ^Richter, p. 360
51. ^Richter, p. 361
52. ^Richter, p. 362
53. ^Middlekauff, pp. 46–49
54. ^Richter, p. 345
55. ^Richter, pp. 379–80
56. ^Richter, pp. 380–81
57. ^Richter, pp. 383–85
58. ^ ^abcFred Anderson, The War That Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War (2006)
59. ^Richter, pp. 390–91
60. ^Taylor (2016), pp. 51–53
61. ^Taylor (2016), pp. 94–96, 107
62. ^Colin G. Calloway, The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America (2006), pp. 92–98
63. ^W. J. Rorabaugh, Donald T. Critchlow, Paula C. Baker (2004). 'America's promise: a concise history of the United States'. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 92. ISBN0-7425-1189-8
64. ^Woody Holton, 'The Ohio Indians and the coming of the American revolution in Virginia', Journal of Southern History, (1994) 60#3 pp. 453–78
65. ^J. R. Pole, Political Representation in England and the Origins of the American Republic (London; Melbourne: Macmillan, 1966), 31, https://www.questia.com/read/89805613.
66. ^Taylor (2016), pp. 112–14
67. ^Taylor (2016), pp. 137–21
68. ^Taylor (2016), pp. 123–27
69. ^Taylor (2016), pp. 137–38
70. ^T.H. Breen, American Insurgents, American Patriots: The Revolution of the People (2010) pp. 81–82
71. ^Taylor (2016), pp. 132–33
72. ^Robert Middlekauff, The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789 (Oxford History of the United States) (2007)
73. ^Note: the population figures are estimates by historians; they do not include the Indian tribes outside the jurisdiction of the colonies. They do include Indians living under colonial control, as well as slaves and indentured servants. U.S. Bureau of the Census, A century of population growth from the first census of the United States to the twelfth, 1790–1900 (1909) p. 9
74. ^Edwin J. Perkins (1988). The Economy of Colonial America. Columbia UP. p. 7.
75. ^Smith, Daniel Scott (1972). 'The Demographic History of Colonial New England'. The Journal of Economic History. 32 (1): 165–83. doi:10.1017/S0022050700075458. JSTOR2117183. PMID11632252.
76. ^Boyer, Paul S.; Clark, Clifford E.; Halttunen, Karen; Kett, Joseph F.; Salisbury, Neal; Sitkoff, Harvard; Woloch, Nancy (2013). The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People (8th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 99. ISBN978-1133944522.
77. ^'Scots to Colonial North Carolina Before 1775'. Dalhousielodge.org. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
78. ^'U.S. Federal Census : United States Federal Census : US Federal Census'. 1930census.com. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
79. ^Betty Wood, Slavery in Colonial America, 1619–1776 (2013) excerpt and text search
80. ^Paul Finkelman (2006). Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619–1895. Oxford UP. pp. 2:156.
81. ^Source: Miller and Smith, eds. Dictionary of American Slavery (1988) p . 678
82. ^Stephen Foster, The Long Argument: English Puritanism and the Shaping of New England Culture, 1570–1700; (1996).
83. ^Patricia U. Bonomi, Under the cope of heaven: Religion, society, and politics in Colonial America (2003).
84. ^Sister M. Rita, 'Catholicism in colonial Maryland,' Records of the American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia 51#1 (1940) pp. 65–83 Online
85. ^Bryan F. Le Beau, Jonathan Dickinson and the Formative Years of American Presbyterianism (2015).
86. ^Gary B. Nash, Quakers and Politics: Pennsylvania, 1681–1726 (1993).
87. ^Thomas S. Kidd, and Barry Hankins, Baptists in America: A History (2015) ch 1.
88. ^Laura M. Stevens, The poor Indians: British missionaries, Native Americans, and colonial sensibility (2010).
89. ^Urban, Wayne J. and Jennings L. Wagoner, Jr. American Education: A History. Routledge, August 11, 2008. ISBN1135267987, 9781135267988. p. 24-25.
90. ^Wayne J. Urban and Jennings L. Wagoner Jr., American Education: A History (5th ed. 2013) pp 11–54.
91. ^John Andrew Doyle, English Colonies in America: Volume IV The Middle Colonies (1907) online
92. ^Louise Phelps Kellogg, The American colonial charter (1904) online
93. ^Max Savelle, 'The Imperial School of American Colonial Historians'. Indiana Magazine of History (1949): 123–34 in JSTORalso online
94. ^ ^abRobert J. Dinkin, Voting in Provincial America: A Study of Elections in the Thirteen Colonies, 1689–1776 (1977)
95. ^Thomas Cooper and David James McCord, eds. The Statutes at Large of South Carolina: Acts, 1685–1716 (1837) p. 688
96. ^Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote (2000) pp. 5–8
97. ^Daniel Vickers, A Companion to Colonial America (2006) p. 300
98. ^Greene and Pole, eds. (2004), p. 665
99. ^Max Savelle, Seeds of Liberty: The Genesis of the American Mind (2005) pp. 204–11
100. ^George Otto Trevelyan, The American revolution: Volume 1(1899) p. 128 online
101. ^William R. Nester, The Great Frontier War: Britain, France, and the Imperial Struggle for North America, 1607–1755 (Praeger, 2000) p, 54.
102. ^Stephens, Unreasonable Searches and Seizures (2006) p. 306
103. ^Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole, eds. 'A Companion to the American Revolution (2004) ch. 63
104. ^Lawrence Gipson, The British Empire Before the American Revolution (15 volumes, 1936–1970), highly detailed discussion of every British colony in the New World in the 1750s and 1760s
105. ^Meinig pp. 313–14; Greene and Pole (2004) ch. 61
106. ^Meinig pp 314–15; Greene and Pole (2004) ch 61
107. ^Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy, An Empire Divided: The American Revolution and the British Caribbean (2000) ch 6
108. ^Meinig pp. 315–16; Greene and Pole (2004) ch. 63
109. ^Meinig p. 316
110. ^P. J. Marshall, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (2001)
111. ^Robert L. Middlekauff, 'The American Continental Colonies in the Empire', in Robin Winks, ed., The Historiography of the British Empire-Commonwealth: Trends, Interpretations and Resources (1966) pp. 23–45.
112. ^William G. Shade, 'Lawrence Henry Gipson's Empire: The Critics'. Pennsylvania History (1969): 49–69 online.
113. ^Brendan Simms, Three victories and a defeat: the rise and fall of the first British Empire 2008
114. ^Ashley Jackson (2013). The British Empire: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford UP. p. 72.
115. ^Ian Tyrrell, 'Making Nations/Making States: American Historians in the Context of Empire', Journal of American History, (1999) 86#3 1015–44 in JSTOR
116. ^Winks, Historiography 5:95
117. ^Francis D. Cogliano, 'Revisiting the American Revolution', History Compass (2010) 8#8: 951–63.
118. ^Eliga H. Gould, Peter S. Onuf, eds. Empire and Nation: The American Revolution in the Atlantic World (2005)
119. ^Compare: David Kennedy; Lizabeth Cohen (2015). American Pageant. Cengage Learning. p. 156. [..] the neoprogressives [..] have argued that the varying material circumstances of American participants led them to hold distinctive versions of republicanism, giving the Revolution a less unified and more complex ideological underpinning than the idealistic historians had previously suggested.
120. ^Ellen Holmes Pearson. 'Revising Custom, Embracing Choice: Early American Legal Scholars and the Republicanization of the Common Law', in Gould and Onuf, eds. Empire and Nation: The American Revolution in the Atlantic World (2005) pp. 93–113
121. ^Anton-Hermann Chroust, Rise of the Legal Profession in America (1965) vol. 2.

Works cited[edit]

• Richter, Daniel (2011). Before the Revolution : America's ancient pasts. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press.
• Taylor, Alan. American Revolutions: A Continental History, 1750–1804 (2016) recent survey by leading scholar

Further reading[edit]

• Adams, James Truslow (1922). The Founding of New England. Atlantic Monthly Press; full text online.
• Adams, James Truslow. Revolutionary New England, 1691–1776 (1923)
• Andrews, Charles M. The Colonial Period of American History (4 vol. 1934–38), the standard political overview to 1700
• Carr, J. Revell (2008). Seeds of Discontent: The Deep Roots of the American Revolution, 1650–1750. Walker Books.
• Chitwood, Oliver. A history of colonial America (1961), older textbook
• Cooke, Jacob Ernest et al., ed. Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies. (3 vol. 1993); 2397 pp.; comprehensive coverage; compares British, French, Spanish & Dutch colonies
• Elliott, John (2006). Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492–1830. Yale University Press.
• Foster, Stephen, ed. British North America in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (2014) doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199206124.001.0001
• Gipson, Lawrence. The British Empire Before the American Revolution (15 volumes, 1936–1970), Pulitzer Prize; highly detailed discussion of every British colony in the New World
• Greene, Evarts Boutelle et al., American Population before the Federal Census of 1790, 1993, ISBN0-8063-1377-3
• Greene, Evarts Boutell (1905). Provincial America, 1690–1740. Harper & brothers; full text online.
• Hawke, David F.; The Colonial Experience; 1966, ISBN0-02-351830-8. older textbook
• Hawke, David F. Everyday Life in Early America (1989) excerpt and text search
• Middlekauff, Robert (2005). The Glorious Cause: the American Revolution, 1763–1789. Oxford University Press.
• Middleton, Richard, and Anne Lombard. Colonial America: A History to 1763 (4th ed. 2011), the newest textbook excerpt and text search
• Taylor, Alan. American colonies (2002), 526 pages; recent survey by leading scholar
• Vickers, Daniel, ed. A Companion to Colonial America. (Blackwell, 2003) 576 pp.; topical essays by experts excerpt

Government[edit]

• Andrews, Charles M.Colonial Self-Government, 1652–1689 (1904) full text online
• Dinkin, Robert J. Voting in Provincial America: A Study of Elections in the Thirteen Colonies, 1689–1776 (1977)
• Miller, John C. Origins of the American Revolution (1943)
• Osgood, Herbert L. The American colonies in the seventeenth century, (3 vol 1904–07) vol. 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online
• Osgood, Herbert L. The American colonies in the eighteenth century (4 vols, 1924–25)

Primary sources[edit]

• Kavenagh, W. Keith, ed. Foundations of Colonial America: a Documentary History (6 vol. 1974)
• Sarson, Steven, and Jack P. Greene, eds. The American Colonies and the British Empire, 1607–1783 (8 vol, 2010); primary sources

External links[edit]

• 840+ volumes of colonial records; useful for advanced scholarship

13 Reasons Why (stylized onscreen as TH1RTEEN R3ASONS WHY) is an American teen dramaweb television series developed for Netflix by Brian Yorkey, based on the 2007 novel Thirteen Reasons Why by Jay Asher. The series revolves around seventeen-year-old high school student, Clay Jensen, and his deceased friend Hannah Baker, who takes her own life after having to face a culture of gossip, bullying and sexual assault at her high school and a lack of support from her friends, her family and her school. A box of cassette tapes recorded by Hannah in the weeks preceding her suicide detail why she chose to end her life. The series is produced by July Moon Productions, Kicked to the Curb Productions, Anonymous Content and Paramount Television, with Yorkey and Diana Son serving as showrunners.

Dylan Minnette stars as Clay Jensen, while Katherine Langford plays Hannah Baker. Christian Navarro, Alisha Boe, Brandon Flynn, Justin Prentice, Miles Heizer, Ross Butler, Devin Druid, Amy Hargreaves, Derek Luke, Kate Walsh, and Brian d'Arcy James also star. A film from Universal Pictures based on Thirteen Reasons Why began development in February 2011, with Selena Gomez set to star as Hannah, before being shelved in favor of a television series and Netflix ordering the first season in October 2015, with Gomez instead serving as an executive producer.

The first season was released on Netflix on March 31, 2017. It received positive reviews from critics and audiences, who praised its subject matter and acting, particularly the performances of Minnette and Langford. For her performance, Langford received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress – Television Series Drama.^[4] However, its graphic depiction of issues such as suicide and rape, along with other mature content prompted concerns from mental health professionals. In response, Netflix added a warning card and from March 2018 on, a video that plays at the start of each season warning viewers about its themes.^[5] In July 2019, Netflix edited out the suicide scene in the first season's final episode.^[6]

In May 2017, Netflix renewed 13 Reasons Why for a second season; filming began the next month and concluded that December. The second season was released on May 18, 2018, and received mixed reviews from audiences. Coinciding with the release of the second season, Netflix released a video with the cast that cautioned viewers on some of the topics covered in the show and provided a support website with crisis numbers for people affected by depression, anxiety and other mental health issues.^[7] A third season was ordered in June 2018 and was released on August 23, 2019. In August 2019, the series had been renewed for a fourth and final season.^[8] Critical and audience reaction to the series has been divided, with the program generating controversy between audiences and industry reviewers alongside acquiring a loyal following.^[9][10][11]

• 2Cast and characters
  • 2.2Recurring
• 3Episodes
• 4Production
• 5Reception
  • 5.2Critical response
• 8References

Premise[edit]

In season one, seventeen-year-old Clay Jensen returns home from school one day to find a mysterious box on his porch. Inside he discovers thirteen cassette tapes recorded by Hannah Baker, his deceased classmate who killed herself two weeks earlier. On the tapes, Hannah unfolds an intensely emotional audio diary, detailing why she decided to end her life. It appears each person who receives this package of old-style tapes is fundamentally related to why she killed herself. Clay is not the first to receive the tapes, but there is implied detail as to how he should pass the tapes on after hearing them. There appears to be an order to distribution of the tapes, with an additional copy held by an overseer should the plan go awry. Each tape recording refers to a different person involved in Hannah's life contributing to a reason for her suicide (mostly referring to both her friends and enemies).^[12]

In season two, months after Hannah's suicide, Clay and the other people mentioned on the tapes, as well as close friends and Hannah's family members, become embroiled in a civil legal battle between Hannah's parents and Liberty High School. Alleging negligence on the part of the school, Hannah's mother pursues her perception of justice, while her reluctance to settle pre-trial and her personal circumstances eventually break up her marriage with Hannah's father. The story unfolds with narratives illustrating Hannah's story told by those who were present in court at the trial.

Clay, who perceives himself as Hannah's failed protector, embarks on an investigation using whatever evidence he can find in an effort to impact on the civil case between Hannah's parents and the school. Clay also endeavors to expose the corrupted culture of the high school and its favor of wealthy jocks over the average student, which especially compromises the integrity of young girls such as Hannah.

Season three is set eight months after the end of season two. Clay and his friends are struggling to cope with the cover-up of Tyler's attempted massacre at the Spring Fling, while helping him towards recovery. However, acrimonious tensions reach a boiling point during Liberty High's Homecoming game, which results in the murder of Bryce Walker. The students of Liberty High are once again forced under the microscope as the investigation into Bryce's death threatens to expose their darkest secrets. ^[13]

Cast and characters[edit]

Main[edit]

• Dylan Minnette as Clay Jensen, a close friend of Hannah who becomes obsessed with finding out what happened to her.^[14]
• Katherine Langford as Hannah Baker, a teenager whose suicide and recorded audio cassettes spark the events of the series.^[14] (seasons 1–2)^[15]
• Christian Navarro as Tony Padilla, Clay's best friend at Liberty High who tries to help him deal with Hannah's death.^[14]
• Alisha Boe as Jessica Davis, a student who starts attending Liberty High at the same time as Hannah.^[14]
• Brandon Flynn as Justin Foley, a student at Liberty High who comes from an abusive family and is in a relationship with Jessica.^[14] He is responsible for setting the events of the series into motion by being the first person to humiliate Hannah after their first date. At the end of season two, Justin is adopted by Clay's parents and now lives with Clay as his brother.
• Justin Prentice as Bryce Walker, a student from a rich family and the captain of the football team and pitcher on the baseball team at Liberty High. He is a notorious serial rapist, known to rape unconscious girls and also assaulted Hannah in his hot tub. He is murdered between seasons 2 and 3; his killer's identity and motive being the season's main conflict.^[14] (seasons 1–3) ^[16]
• Miles Heizer as Alex Standall, a student at Liberty High, the ex-boyfriend of Jessica and a former friend of Hannah.^[14]
• Ross Butler as Zach Dempsey, a kindhearted friend of Justin and Bryce at Liberty High.^[14]
• Devin Druid as Tyler Down, a bullied student at Liberty High and an avid photographer.^[14]
• Amy Hargreaves as Lainie Jensen, Clay's attorney mother.^[17]
• Derek Luke as Kevin Porter, a guidance counselor at Liberty High.^[18] (seasons 1–2; guest season 3)
• Kate Walsh as Olivia Baker, Hannah's mother and Andy's wife, who is determined to uncover the truth about the events leading to her daughter's suicide.^[18] (seasons 1–2; guest season 3)
• Brian d'Arcy James as Andy Baker, Hannah's father and Olivia's husband.^[19] (season 2; recurring season 1)
• Grace Saif as Amorowat Anysia 'Ani' Achola, a new student at Liberty High, who has an unknown prior criminal history and is close to Clay and Jessica (season 3)^[8]
• Brenda Strong as Nora Walker, Bryce's mother. (season 3; recurring season 2)^[20]
• Timothy Granaderos as Montgomery 'Monty' de la Cruz, a bully who is a student at Liberty High (season 3; recurring seasons 1–2)
• Gary Sinise as Dr. Robert Ellman, a compassionate, incisive, no-nonsense adolescent and family therapist who works to help Clay Jensen battle anxiety, depression and grief (season 4)^[21]

Recurring[edit]

Introduced in season one[edit]

• Josh Hamilton as Matt Jensen, a college professor and Clay's father.
• Michele Selene Ang as Courtney Crimsen, a closeted student at Liberty High who is responsible for spreading rumors about Hannah to protect the secret of her own sexual orientation. In season 2, she comes out on the stand during the trial of Hannah Baker, confessing her actions against Hannah that landed her on the tapes.
• Steven Silver as Marcus Cole, the self-centered student body president at Liberty High, who is responsible for humiliating and attempting to sexually assault Hannah on a date. In season 2, he is suspended from school after lying on the stand during the trial and following the leaked release of the tapes soon after.
• Ajiona Alexus as Sheri Holland, a student and cheerleader at Liberty High who forms a bond with Clay but is also on the tapes when her actions result in Jeff's accidental death.
• Tommy Dorfman as Ryan Shaver, a student at Liberty High who betrayed Hannah's trust.
• Sosie Bacon as Skye Miller, an estranged friend of Clay. In the second season, Skye and Clay date for while before she leaves for a 'fresh start', following another self-harm incident which resulted in her bipolar disorder diagnosis.
• Brandon Larracuente as Jeff Atkins, a student at Liberty High and friend of Clay who died in a tragic car accident.
• Steven Weber as Gary Bolan, the principal at Liberty High.
• Keiko Agena as Pam Bradley, the Communications teacher at Liberty High.
• Mark Pellegrino as Bill Standall, a Crestmont deputy sheriff and Alex's father.
• Joseph C. Phillips as Greg Davis, a member of the United States Air Force and Jessica's father.
• Andrea Roth as Noelle Davis, Jessica's mother.
• Cindy Cheung as Karen Dempsey, Zach's mother.
• Anna Zavelson as May Dempsey, Zach's younger sister.
• Henry Zaga as Brad, Tony's boyfriend. In season 2, it is revealed that the couple broke up sometime between the events of season 1 and 2.
• Giorgia Whigham as Kat, a friend of Hannah and her former next-door neighbor.
• Robert Gant as Todd Crimsen, one of Courtney's fathers.
• Alex Quijano as Steve Crimsen, one of Courtney's fathers.
• Wilson Cruz as Dennis Vasquez, the lawyer representing Hannah's parents at the end of season 1, during season 2 and guest season 3.
• Ross Turner as Mr. Wood, Liberty High School math teacher.
• Matthew Alan as Seth Massey, a drug dealer and Justin's mother's live-in boyfriend, who is abusive toward Justin.
• Jackie Geary as Amber Foley, Justin's mother, a passive drug addict.
• Tom Everett Scott as Mr. Down, Tyler's father.
• Maria Dizzia as Mrs. Down, Tyler's mother.
• Kimko Gelman as Jane Childs, the vice principal at Liberty High.
• Brittany Perry-Russell as Tracy Porter, Mr. Porter's wife.
• Gary Perez as Arturo Padilla, Tony's father.

Introduced in season two[edit]

• Parminder Nagra as Priya Singh, the school counsellor at Liberty High.
• Anne Winters as Chlöe Rice, a smart, clueless, popular girl at Liberty High and the new head cheerleader who is also Bryce's girlfriend. At the end of season 2, it is revealed that she is pregnant.
• Jake Weber as Barry Walker, Bryce's father.^[22]
• Meredith Monroe as Carolyn Standall, Alex's mother.^[22]
• R.J. Brown as Caleb, Tony's boxing trainer and boyfriend.^[22]
• Bryce Cass as Cyrus, an edgy, cynical mischief maker who serves as an unexpected champion of the downtrodden. He befriends Tyler and the two together embark on smear campaigns against bullies.^[23]
• Chelsea Alden as Mackenzie, Cyrus' sister, an artsy and witty girl who is not afraid to speak her mind. In season 2, she briefly develops a relationship with Tyler, though the latter breaks it up.^[23]
• Allison Miller as Sonya Struhl, a smart and ambitious young litigator, who defends the school during the Hannah Baker trial.^[23]
• Brandon Butler as Scott Reed, a student at Liberty High who is on the baseball team.^[23]
• Samantha Logan as Nina Jones, a well-respected track star who befriends Jessica over shared sexual assault pasts.^[23]
• Kelli O'Hara as Jackie, a passionate advocate for victims of bullying.^[23]
• Ben Lawson as Rick Wlodimierz, the baseball coach at Liberty High, who supports and protects his players.^[23]
• Keon Motakhaveri as Chad Moore, one of Cyrus' friends.
• Spencer Moore II as Michael, one of Nina's friends.
• James Cretan as Eric Cox, one of Cyrus' friends.
• Mason Guccione as Toby Fletcher, one of Cyrus' friends.
• Mikko Edwards as Jada, a cheerleader at Liberty High.

Introduced in season three[edit]

• Tyler Barnhardt as Charlie St. George, a jock at Liberty High that is friends with Montgomery but kind at heart.
• Bex Taylor-Klaus as Casey Ford, a member of HO and Jessica's friend.
• Austin Aaron as Luke Holliday, a jock at Liberty High.
• Hart Denton as Dean Holbrook, a student at Hillcrest that doesn't like Bryce.
• Deaken Bluman as Winston Williams, a student at Hillcrest that hooks up with Montgomery.
• Nana Mensah as Amara Josephine Achola, Ani's strict mother and the Walker's nurse/housekeeper.
• Benito Martinez as Evergreen County Sheriff Diaz, the main Sheriff in Bryce's murder case.
• Marcus DeAnda as Mr. de la Cruz, Montgomery's abusive father.
• Raymond J. Barry as Harrison Chatham, Nora's sick father and Bryce's grandfather.
• Brandon Scott as Coach Kerba, the football coach at Liberty High, who is hard on the players to get them to shape up.

Episodes[edit]

Season 1 (2017)[edit]

Season 2 (2018)[edit]

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Season 3 (2019)[edit]

Production[edit]

Development[edit]

Universal Studios purchased film rights to the novel on February 8, 2011, with Selena Gomez cast to play Hannah Baker.^[25] On October 29, 2015, it was announced that Netflix would be making a television adaptation of the book with Gomez instead serving as an executive producer.^[26][27]Tom McCarthy was hired to direct the first two episodes.^[28] The series is produced by Anonymous Content and Paramount Television with Gomez, McCarthy, Joy Gorman, Michael Sugar, Steve Golin, Mandy Teefey, and Kristel Laiblin serving as executive producers.^[28]

On May 7, 2017, it was announced that Netflix had renewed the series for a second season, which was released on May 18, 2018.^[29]

On June 6, 2018, Netflix renewed the series for a third season, which was released on August 23, 2019.^[30]

On August 1, 2019, it was announced that the series had been renewed for a fourth and final season.^[8]

Casting[edit]

In June 2016, Dylan Minnette, Katherine Langford, Christian Navarro, Alisha Boe, Brandon Flynn, Justin Prentice, Miles Heizer, Ross Butler, Devin Druid and Brian d'Arcy James were cast as the main leads.^[19] In September, Amy Hargreaves, Kate Walsh and Derek Luke were cast.^[17][18] Langford exited the show after the second season.

In September 2018, Timothy Granaderos and Brenda Strong were promoted to series regulars for season 3 after recurring in the previous seasons.^[20] On September 5, 2019, Gary Sinise was cast as a series regular for the fourth season.^[21]

In August 2017, Jake Weber, Meredith Monroe, R.J Brown, Anne Winters, Bryce Cass, Chelsea Alden, Allison Miller, Brandon Butler, Samantha Logan, Kelli O'Hara, and Ben Lawson were cast for season two.^[22][23]

Filming[edit]

Filming for the series took place in the Northern Californian towns of Vallejo, Benicia, San Rafael, Crockett and Sebastopol during the summer of 2016.^[31][32] The 13-episode first season and the special were released on Netflix on March 31, 2017.^[33][34]Therapy dogs were present on set for the actors because of the intense and emotional content of the series.^[35]

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Filming for the second season began on June 12, 2017,^[36] but was briefly halted in October in response to the then-ongoing Northern California wildfires happening around the areas where the series was being filmed.^[37] Production on the second season wrapped in December 2017.^[38] The second season was released on May 18, 2018.^[39]

Filming for the third season began on August 12, 2018, but was halted due to another wildfire until December 17.^[40] Filming was scheduled to be completed on February 6, 2019.^[41]

Reception[edit]

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Audience viewership[edit]

The marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the first season was the second-most viewed Netflix season in the first 30 days after it premiered, garnering 48% of the viewers that the second season of Daredevil received, which was the most viewed season according to Jumpshot. The series also showed an 18% increase in week-over-week viewership from week one to week two. Jumpshot, which 'analyzes click-stream data from an online panel of more than 100 million consumers', looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season.^[42]

Critical response[edit]

Season 1[edit]

The first season has received positive reviews from critics, with much of the praise for the series being aimed at its acting (particularly that of Minnette, Langford, and Walsh), directing, story, visuals, improvements upon its source material, and mature approach to dark and adult subject matter. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 79% approval rating with an average rating of 7.14/10, based on 62 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, '13 Reasons Why complements its bestselling source material with a gripping look at adolescent grief whose narrative maturity belies its YA milieu.'^[43]Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 76 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating generally favorable reviews.^[44]

Jesse Schedeen of IGN praised 13 Reasons Why, giving it a 9.2 out of 10, 'Amazing', stating that the series is 'a very powerful and hard-hitting series' and 'ranks among the best high school dramas of the 21st century'.^[49] Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe gave a glowing review for the series, saying, 'The drama is sensitive, consistently engaging, and, most importantly, unblinking.'^[50] Maureen Ryan of Variety asserts that the series 'is undoubtedly sincere, but it's also, in many important ways, creatively successful' and called it 'simply essential viewing'.^[51] Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the entire season a score of B+, calling the series 'a frank, authentically affecting portrait of what it feels like to be young, lost and too fragile for the world'.^[52] Daniel Feinberg of The Hollywood Reporter also praised the series, calling it 'an honorably mature piece of young-adult adaptation', and citing its performances, direction, relevance and maturity as some of the series' strongest points.^[53]

The acting, particularly Katherine Langford as Hannah and Dylan Minnette as Clay, was frequently mentioned and widely lauded in several reviews. Schedeen of IGN praised the cast, particularly Minnette and Langford, stating: 'Langford shines in the lead role.. [and] embodies that optimism and that profound sadness [of Hannah's] as well. Minnette's Clay is, by design, a much more stoic and reserved character.. and does a fine job in what's often a difficult role.'^[49] Gilbert of The Boston Globe praised the chemistry of Langford and Minnette, saying that 'watching these two young actors together is pure pleasure', while Schedeen of IGN also agreed, saying that they are 'often at their best together, channeling just the right sort of warm but awkward chemistry you'd expect from two teens who can't quite admit to their feelings for one another'. Feinberg of The Hollywood Reporter also praises both actors: 'Langford's heartbreaking openness makes you root for a fate you know isn't possible. The actress' performance is full of dynamic range, setting it against Minnette's often more complicated task in differentiating between moods that mostly go from uncomfortable to gloomy to red-eyed, hygiene-starved despair.'^[53]

Ryan of Variety also gave praise to not only the two leads, but also the supporting cast of actors, particularly Kate Walsh's performance as Hannah's mother, which Ryan describes as 'career-best work'.^[51] Positive mentions from various critics, such as Ryan, Feinberg and Schedeen, were also given to the supporting cast of actors (most particularly Alisha Boe, Miles Heizer and Christian Navarro's respective performances of Jessica, Alex and Tony). Liz Shannon Miller of Indiewire, who enjoyed the series and gave it a positive score of B+, gave praise to the racial, gender and complex diversity of its supporting cast of teens.^{[51][49][53][54]}

Another aspect frequently mentioned within reviews was the series' mature and emotional approach to its dark and adult subject matter. This was favorably reviewed by critics, such as Miller of Indiewire, particularly her statement that 'the adult edges to this story ring with honesty and truth.'^[54] Miller, and Feinberg of The Hollywood Reporter, also stated that the series can be difficult to watch at times,^[53] while Schedeen of IGN states that it is 'an often depressing and even uncomfortable show to watch.. a pretty emotionally draining experience, particularly towards the end as the pieces really start to fall into place.'^[49]

Numerous critics also praised several other aspects of the series. Feinberg highlighted the series' directors, saying: 'A Sundance-friendly gallery of directors including Tom McCarthy, Gregg Araki and Carl Franklin keeps the performances grounded and the extremes from feeling exploitative',^[54] while Gilbert of The Boston Globe praised the storytelling: 'The storytelling techniques are powerful.. [as it] builds on the world established in the previous hour, as we continually encounter new facets of Hannah's life and new characters. The background on the show keeps getting deeper, richer.'^[50]

Conversely, the series has also received criticism over its portrayal of teen angst. Mike Hale of The New York Times wrote a critical review, writing, 'the show doesn't make [Hannah's] downward progress convincing. It too often feels artificial, like a very long public service announcement.' He also criticized the plot device that has Clay listening to the tapes one by one instead of all in one sitting like the other teens did, which Hale felt was unbelievable: 'It makes no sense as anything but a plot device, and you'll find yourself, like Clay's antagonists, yelling at him to listen to the rest of tapes already.'^[55]

Writing for The Guardian, Rebecca Nicholson praised some aspects of the series, including the performances from Minnette and Walsh, but was troubled by much of the plot, writing, 'a storyline that suggests the love of a sweet boy might have sorted all this out added to an uneasy feeling that stayed with me'. Nicholson was skeptical that the series would appeal to older viewers, unlike other series set in high school such as Freaks and Geeks and My So-Called Life: 'It lacks the crossover wit of its forebears.. It's too tied up in conveying the message that terrible behaviour can have horrible consequences to deal in any subtleties or shades of feeling. It's largely one-note – and that note is horrifying. 'It has to get better,' implores one student towards the end, but given its fairly open ending, an apparent season two setup, it does not seem as if there's much chance of that happening.'^[56]

Washington Post television critic Hank Stuever wrote a negative review, finding 13 Reasons Why 'contrived' and implausible: 'There are 13 episodes lasting 13 super-sullen hours – a passive-aggressive, implausibly meandering, poorly written and awkwardly acted effort that is mainly about miscommunication, delivering no more wisdom or insight about depression, bullying and suicide than one of those old ABC Afterschool Specials people now mock for being so corny.' He also wrote that he found Hannah's suicide tapes 'a protracted example of the teenager who fantasizes how everyone will react when she's gone. The story.. strikes me as remarkably, even dangerously, naive in its understanding of suicide, up to and including a gruesome, penultimate scene of Hannah opening her wrists in a bathtub.'^[57]

David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the series a tepid review, saying that it was plagued by character inconsistencies, particularly Hannah. He praised Langford's 'stunning performance' but noted, 'There are times when we simply don't believe the characters, when what they do or say isn't consistent with who we've been led to believe they are.. At times, [Hannah] is self-possessed and indifferent at best to the behavior of the popular kids. At other times, though, relatively minor misperceived slights seem to send her into an emotional tailspin. No doubt, teenagers embody a constant whirl of conflicting emotions, but the script pushes the bounds of credibility here and there.' He noted that overall, the series worked: 'The structure is gimmicky and the characters inconsistent, but there are still at least 13 Reasons Why the series is worthy.'^[58]

Season 2[edit]

The second season received largely mixed to negative reviews from critics, with many praising the performances (particularly that of Boe, Luke, and Walsh) but criticism aimed at the poor execution of its topics; many declared it unnecessary.^[59][60] Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 25% with an average rating of 5.31/10, based on 51 reviews. The site's critical consensus states, 'By deviating from its source material, 13 Reasons Why can better explore its tenderly crafted characters; unfortunately, in the process, it loses track of what made the show so gripping in the first place.'^[45] On Metacritic the season has an average score of 49 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating 'mixed or average reviews'.^[46]

Catherine Pearson from DigitalSpy wrote a negative review, calling the season 'even more problematic' than the first. She ends the review saying that, 'Unrelenting depression seems to shroud the season, briefly lifted only to collapse back down as the show's thirteenth episode, once again, delivers a deeply disturbing scene of suffering.'^[61] Jordan Davidson from The Mighty wrote that he 'felt sick' after watching the final episode of the season.^[62]

A scene in which the character Tyler is attacked and sexually assaulted during the finale also caused controversy from fans and critics of the series, with some describing it as 'unnecessary' and 'traumatizing'.^[63] The series' showrunner has defended the scene, saying that it was included in an attempt to '[tell] truthful stories about things that young people go through in as unflinching a way as we can'.^[64]

Season 3[edit]

Season 3 received overwhelmingly negative reviews by both critics and audiences, with criticism aimed at the lack of necessity, poor execution of its topics, including the rape of Tyler in the final episode of the previous season,^[65][66] the new character of Ani,^[67], the sympathetic redemption of Bryce^[68] and conclusion. However, some praised the technical aspects and the performances (particularly that of Prentice, Druid and Granaderos).^[69]

Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 12%, with an average rating of 1.43/10, based on 16 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads: '13 Reasons Why attempts to break away from its first two seasons only to become a melodramatic mess of a murder mystery.'^[47]

On Metacritic the season has an average score of 23 out of 100, based on 4 critics, indicating 'generally unfavourable reviews'.^[48]

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Controversy[edit]

Some medical professionals, school officials, and others who work with youth said that the series violated guidelines for depicting suicide in the media, and was resulting in an increase in suicidal and self-harming behavior. Netflix responded by adding strong advisory warnings prior to the first, twelfth, and thirteenth episodes.

The superintendent of Palm Beach County, Florida schools reportedly told parents that their schools had seen an increase in suicidal and self-harming behavior from students, and that some of those students 'have articulated associations of their at-risk behavior to the 13 Reasons Why Netflix series'.^[71]

The Australian youth mental health service for 12–25 year-olds, Headspace, issued a warning in late April 2017 over the graphic content featured in the series, due to the increased number of calls to the service following the series' release in the country. Netflix however, demonstrably complied with the Australian viewer ratings system, by branding the series as 'MA15+' when streamed via its own interface. They accompanied its presentation with additional warnings and viewer advice, and ensured that counselling referrals were included and not easily skipped at the conclusion of each episode. Each warning voice over is read by a different cast member at the end of the episode, with Katherine Langford reading in her native Australian accent in her voice-overs. ^[72][73][74]

In response to the graphic nature of the series and New Zealand's high youth suicide rate, which was the highest among the 34^[a]OECD countries during 2009 to 2012,^[76][77] the Office of Film & Literature Classification in the country created a new rating, 'RP18', allowing individuals aged 18 and over to watch the series alone and those below having to watch it with supervision from a parent or guardian.^[78][79]

—Executive producer Selena Gomez, in defense of the controversy surrounding the series^[80]

In April 2017, the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) in the United States released a statement regarding the series, saying: 'Research shows that exposure to another person's suicide, or to graphic or sensationalized accounts of death, can be one of the many risk factors that youth struggling with mental health conditions cite as a reason they contemplate or attempt suicide.'^[81] NASP sent a letter to school mental health professionals across the country about the series, reportedly a first for NASP in response to a television series.^[82] The following month, the United States Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP) released a statement also noting how strongly the series may serve as a trigger for self-injury among vulnerable youth. They lamented the depiction of mental health professionals as ineffective for youth who have experienced trauma and may have been considering suicide.^[83] The statement implored Netflix to add a tag following each episode with mental health resources, and a reminder that depression and suicidal thoughts can be effectively treated by a qualified mental health professional, such as a clinical child psychologist, using evidence-based practice.

Similarly, clinical psychologists such as Daniel J. Reidenberg and Erika Martinez, as well as mental health advocate MollyKate Cline of Teen Vogue magazine, have expressed concerns regarding the risk of suicide contagion.^[84][85][86] However, Eric Beeson, a counselor at The Family Institute at Northwestern University noted that 'it's unlikely that one show alone could trigger someone to attempt suicide.'^[81] Mental health professionals have also criticized the series' depiction of suicide itself, much of which violates widely promulgated recommendations for reporting on actual suicides or not depicting them in fiction, in order to not encourage copycat suicides.^[87] The season finale, which depicts Hannah's suicide in graphic detail, has been particularly criticized in this regard.^[88] Nic Sheff, a writer for the series, has defended it as intended to dispel the myth that suicides 'quietly drift off', and recalled how he himself was deterred from a suicide attempt by recalling a survivor's account of how painful and horrifying it was.^[89]

The NASP statement also criticized the series' suggestion that bullying alone led Hannah to take her life, noting that while it may be a contributing factor, suicide far more often results from the bullied person having a 'treatable mental illness and overwhelming or intolerable stressors', along with a lack of adequate coping mechanisms. Alex Moen, a school counselor in Minneapolis, took issue with the series' entire plotline as 'essentially a fantasy of what someone who is considering suicide might have—that once you commit suicide, you can still communicate with your loved ones, and people will suddenly realize everything that you were going through and the depth of your pain.. That the cute, sensitive boy will fall in love with you and seek justice for you, and you'll be able to orchestrate it, and in so doing kind of still be able to live.'^[88] Other counselors criticized the depiction of Hannah's attempt to reach out to Mr. Porter as dangerously misleading, since not only does he miss obvious signs of her suicidal ideations, but says he cannot report her sexual assault to the police without her identifying the assailant. School counselors are often portrayed as ineffective or clueless in popular culture, Moen says, but Porter's behavior in the series goes beyond that, to being unethical and possibly illegal. 'It's ridiculous! Counselors are not police. We don't have to launch an investigation. We bring whatever information we do have to the police', she told Slate.^[88]

In May 2017, the Canadian Mental Health Association (CMHA) along with the Centre for Suicide Prevention (CSP) released a statement with similar concerns to the ones raised by NASP. CMHA believed that the series may glamorize suicide, and that some content may lead to distress in viewers, particularly in younger viewers. Furthermore, the portrayal of Hannah's suicide does not follow the media guidelines as set out by the Canadian Association for Suicide Prevention (CASP) and the American Association of Suicidology. CMHA and CASP did praise the series for raising awareness about 'this preventable health concern,' adding that, 'Raising awareness needs to be done in a safe and responsible manner. A large and growing body of Canadian and international research has found clear links between increases in suicide rates and harmful media portrayals of suicide.' Ways in which the portrayals of suicide may cause harm, according to CMHA and CASP, include the following: 'They may simplify suicide, such as, by suggesting that bullying alone is the cause; they may make suicide seem romantic, such as, by putting it in the context of a Hollywood plot line; they may portray suicide as a logical or viable option; they may display graphic representations of suicide which may be harmful to viewers, especially young ones; and/or they may advance the false notion that suicides are a way to teach others a lesson.'^[90][91] A 2019 study showed the overall suicide rate among 10- to 17-year-olds increased significantly in the month immediately following the release of the series.^[92]

The release of 13 Reasons Why corresponded with between 900,000 and 1.5 million more suicide-related searches in the United States, including a 26% increase in searches for 'how to commit suicide,' an 18% increase for 'commit suicide,' and a 9% increase for 'how to kill yourself.'^[93] After an initial spike in calls to Crisis Text Line after the first episode, there was an overall reduction in crisis call volume for the remainder of the series.^[94] Although the link between searching for suicide information and suicide risk is unclear,^[95] increases in self-harm admissions to one children's hospital were observed.^{[96][97][98][99][100]}

The show's third season has been accused of promoting abortion and portraying pro-lifers in a negative light.^{[101][102][103]}

Accolades[edit]

Beyond the Reasons[edit]

With the release of the first season of the series, Netflix also released 13 Reasons Why: Beyond the Reasons, an aftershowdocumentary television film. The 29-minute documentary featured cast and crew of the series, and mental health professionals discussing their experiences working on the four series and dealing with different issues, including bullying, depression and sexual assault. Two more Beyond the Reasons specials were released with the second and third seasons respectively.^{[114][115][116]}

Soundtrack[edit]

The soundtrack for each season includes Gomez's cover of 'Only You' and Lord Huron's 'The Night We Met' (the song played at Clay and Hannah's prom) alongside tracks from The Cure and Joy Division.^{[117][118][119][120]}

References[edit]

1. ^ ^ab'13 Reasons Why' Original Score Soundtrack (Interscope) — ESKMO
2. ^This Art Of The Shot: “13 Reasons Why” Director of Photography Andrij Parekh – ProVideo Coalition
3. ^13 Reasons Why instantwatcher.com
4. ^2018 Golden Globe TV Nominations - Drama E! News Canada
5. ^Libbey, Peter (March 22, 2018). 'Netflix Adds a Warning Video to '13 Reasons Why''. The New York Times. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
6. ^Netflix deletes graphic suicide scene from first season of '13 Reasons Why' – CBS News
7. ^3 Reasons Why: Season 2 starts mental health debate Film Industry Network
8. ^ ^abcWhite, Peter (August 1, 2019). ''13 Reasons Why': Netflix Orders Fourth & Final Season Of Controversial Drama, Sets Season 3 Premiere Date'. Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved August 1, 2019.
9. ^'13 Reasons Why' spreads suicide like a disease: Column - USA Today
10. ^How '13 Reasons Why' gets suicide wrong: Voices - USA Today
11. ^[1]
12. ^Big Differences Between the Book and TV Show Versions of 13 Reasons Why POPSUGAR Entertainment
13. ^4 Reasons There Should Not Be Another Season of 13 Reasons Why POPSUGAR Entertainment
14. ^ ^abcdefghiAndreeva, Nellie (June 8, 2016). ''13 Reasons Why' Netflix Series: Dylan Minnette & Katherine Langford Lead Cast'. Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on September 14, 2016. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
15. ^13 Reasons Why: Katherine Langford says goodbye to Hannah Baker Entertainment Weekly
16. ^13 Reasons Why’s Biggest Mistake Is Humanizing The Despicable Bryce Walker - ScreenRant
17. ^ ^abPetski, Denise (June 23, 2016). ''13 Reasons Why' Casts Amy Hargreaves; Frances Conroy In 'The Mist''. Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on October 1, 2016. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
18. ^ ^abcAndreeva, Nellie (June 10, 2016). ''13 Reasons Why': Kate Walsh To Co-Star In Netflix Series, Derek Luke Also Cast'. Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on September 17, 2016. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
19. ^ ^ab''Spotlight's Brian d'Arcy James Cast In Netflix Series '13 Reasons Why', Joins TNT Pilot 'Civil''. Deadline Hollywood. June 15, 2016. Archived from the original on September 22, 2016.
20. ^ ^abAndreeva, Nellie (September 7, 2018). ''13 Reasons Why': Timothy Granaderos & Brenda Strong Upped To Series Regulars For Season 3 Of Netflix Series'. Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved September 8, 2018.
21. ^ ^abSchwartz, Ryan (September 5, 2019). '13 Reasons Why Adds Gary Sinise as Series Regular Ahead of Final Season'. TVLine. Retrieved October 2, 2019.
22. ^ ^abcdPetski, Denise (August 10, 2017). ''13 Reasons Why': Jake Weber, Brenda Strong, Meredith Monroe & RJ Brown Join Season 2 Cast'. Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on August 21, 2017. Retrieved August 21, 2017.
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Notes[edit]

1. ^The 2009–2012 data exclude Latvia, which became the 35th OECD member country on July 1, 2016.^[75]

See also[edit]

• Spotlight, Tom McCarthy's 2015 Oscar-winning film similar in content
• The Doom Generation, Greg Araki's 1995 film similar in content
• Peyton Place, both the 1956 novel and 1957 film adaptation similar in content
• Degrassi: The Next Generation, similar in content
• Euphoria, similar in content
• Echo and the Bunnymen, music (original and/or covered versions) featured in the show

External links[edit]

• 13 Reasons Why on Netflix
• 13 Reasons Why on IMDb
• 13 Reasons Why at Rotten Tomatoes
• 13 Reasons Why at TV.com
• What We Wish They Knew: 13 Reasons Why – support resources organized by episode and topic, curated by HGAPS and SCCAP